Kirov class cruisers

The first modern interwar cruisers built in USSR were the Kirov class. Three series of ships, sub-class pairs, were built with gradual improvements, like the Italian Condotierri class. And this comparison is not random. Their design was indeed very heavily influenced by Italian designers and Shipyards, to the point some even compared them to “Italian Trentos”. They were commissioned before and during the war for the last ones, saw heavy action and were scrapped in the 1960s and 1970s. A very peculiar design, they were essentially light cruisers with a 7-in artillery, a paradox as USSR was never a signatory of any naval limitations treaty unlike Italy. The Soviet Navy with these ships seems willing to bridge the gap between light and heavy cruisers with an intermediate caliber. Their classification still escape most descriptions, and in the end, they were tailored for the Soviety flot needs regardless of anything else… But without them, they would not have been the Chapayev and Sverdlovs. Next stop: The Molotov class.

Kaganovich, AI colorized.

The Kirovs class: An enigma

The Kirov class cruisers (not to confound wih the battlecruisers of the 1970-80s) were importrant ships in the general evolution of cruiser design, not only for USSR, but also for interward cruiser designs in general. Albeit they did not bring anything new on the table given their close bonds with known Italian designs, the armament choice, balanced protection and speed combination is pretty unique and escape classifications: They were not light cruisers in the Washington and London Treaty sense, as their main gun caliber was above 6 inches or 152mm. They were not either heavy cruisers, not reaching their autuhorized 10,000 tonnes limit by a long shot, with 8,000 tonnes standard, and their maion caliber again was inferior to 8-inches (203 mm).

Their protection was comparable to late light-cruisers with 50 mm or 2-inches everywhere it mattered, they had a great speed, above average, they had a very strong AA for their time, and were quite versatile, being able to carry mines as well as depht charges (pretty rare for a cruiser) in addition to their paravanes for minesweeping. An all-in-one package for a cruiser that was the only new, large ship design in Russian since many decades. They were the largest laid down as well since the revolution. An the design evolved constantly, with the last class deriverging a lot from the first. That is, in a nutshell the “Kirov’s enigma”, very unique ships that matched nothing known in the West. By 1941 however, the naval staff started to completely change inspirations and went for a “Russian Cleveland” instead, embracing dual purpose fast firing 6-inches guns on larger hulls with the Chapayevs.

Development

The Kirov in 1942 (cc)

What the Soviet Navy started with

The first two cruisers of the Kirov class were the first laid down in the interwar for the Soviet Navy. Apart from the three Svetlana rebuilt in the years 25-30, they were brand new. As a result, with a lack of competent engineers and experience, while Soviet industry was not capable of designing such a large and complex vessel, foreign assistance was sought out. They entrusted the Italians, who at the time enjoyed a certain technical and design prestige compounded by many export successes.
Indeed, the picture for cruisers in USSR after the revolution was pretty grim: Imperial Russia had one of the largest naval power worldwide in 1904, with all the cruisers it needed for its three main fleets. It was gutted by the Russo-Japanese war, and what remained soldiered on in WWI, meanwhile new construction started, chiefly the Svetlana and Nakhimov classes. Of these new classes (6+4), only a handful were completed after the revolution of 1917 and civil war ending in 1922. Existing hulls, without maintenance, rusted away as naval operations practically ceased in 1918 and shipyards changed hands. The naval staff was hunted down, sailors joined organized militas and became and infantry instrumental in the victory of the “reds”. Engineers fled abroad, and for those who remained, loyalty was more important than skills, especially under Stalin.

So in terms of cruisers, Soviet Russia had only three workable as front line vessels: The Svetlana class were mostly incomplete and scrapped. Three would be rebuilt, modernized and completed still, renamed, Cherevonia Ukrainia, Profintern, and the completely rebuilt Kravzy Kavkaz completed in 1932. This was the first true “modern cruiser” in Soviet inventory. And that was the best part. Aurora (1903) was still around, preserved for her role in 1917 (later preserved, but still a TS), Kagul (ex Pamiat Merkuria, 1903) was an ex-Russian, ex-Ukrainian vessels also used as TS from 1923 as Kommuna. And that was it.

Blueprint: The Kavkaz

Kavkaz, laid down in 1913, launched in 1916, mothballed and rebuilt from 1927, was the very first modern Soviet cruiser. The most important role she played was to validate the new main caliber gun the Russians settled on. This was instrumental and the next cruisers would be wrapped around. The main driving force behind the armament was planned her location to the Pacific Fleet. She was to face the Japanese Furutaka class (six 8-in/203 mm in single turrets). The choice made was for four single turrets instead of six due to stability issue with the lender hull of the Svetlana she was based on. But more so was the choice of a 180mm gun. Based on previous experience it was preferrable to aim for rate of fire more than anything else. The main issue when loading a gun was the shell’s weight. Between a 6 inches and a 8 inches, it almost doubled, and complicated, slowed down the whole process. This was still too large for a unitary one, but 180 mm or 7 inches was never used by anybody before. Long story short, Kavkaz was eventually retained in the Black sea and soldiered there.

Origin of the Project

The short story is that the Ansaldo company, responsible for the Condotierri class was contacted, and an agreement was signed. They provided plans of their latest design, the Raimondo Montecuccoli-class cruisers to be studied. The yard also provided engineers and assistance in order to draw the final plans on Soviet specifications. The long story to get there, started much earlier. It started with the time the “socialist” regime proned by Mussolini in its early years, led to a natural rapprochement with USSR. The Soviets and Italians maintained contacts since 26 December 1921 (so even before the Duce came to power in October 1922).

This led to a signed trade agreement, as well as Italy being one of the first to restore full diplomatic relations from 7 February 1924, first Western nation to recognize Soviet Union. This rapprochement was to be seen in light of the anti-western sentiment born from frustrations after its peace gains postwar. On 6 May 1933, this led to the signing an economic pact with shared interests in industrialisation, Italy requesting Soviet oil and coal, in return, granted access to Soviet engineers to the latest designs in aviation, automobile and naval sphere.

Since speed was everything at that time, the Italians focused on it, and promised a 7200 tons cruiser armed at first with three twin turrets with the Russian intermediary caliber of 180 mm (7.1 in). This odd concept derived from the experimental artillery made for the previous Krazny Kavkaz, in single turrets, made to answer early 1930s IJN cruisers in the Pacific.
The idea was to have a bit more range and hitting power than the classic 6-in while being a bit faster than the harder-hitting 8-in. Such twin turret was produced in 1933, and the chief Italian designer of Ansaldo guaranteed a speed of 37 knots within the 7200 tons limit. The turret designer afterwards claimed it was even possible to fit three barrels instead of two, although solidarity. Impressed by this firepower increase, the Soviet committee approved the blueprints on November 1934 as Project 26.

Project 26 Genesis

However for the cruiser itself, it went back to the Project 26 Light Cruisers. Behind it was V.M. Orlov at the end of 1930, in a special commission led by UVMS Technical Directorate A.K. Sivkov in Italy, to negotiate the acquisition several warships of various types for the USSR, including light cruisers. V. M. Orlov showed great interest for the Condottieri early cruisers (Giussano-Cadorna) but facing refusal to the sale of a ship already in service (the Swedes succeeded in this by 1940) by January 1932, V. M. Orlov turned to Commissar K. E. Voroshilov to draft specifications to be submitted to Italian shipyards as a tender. It was also studied a licence or a new-build in USSR, with help of Italian specialists. In February 1932, V. M. Orlov drafted the final technical and military requirements, approved on April 15.

It was sent to the Training and Combat Department of the Navy E. S. Pantserzhansky and planned four (2×2) 180-mm guns, 4×1 100-mm dual purpose, 4×1 45-mm AA guns, 4×1 12.7-mm heavy machine guns, 2×3 torpedo tubes banks, four DI-6 floatplanes, on two catapults for a speed of 37-38 knots, range 3,000-3,600 miles. So essentially a beamier version of Kavkaz with twin turrets fore and aft. It went through the shipbuilding section of the Scientific and Technical Committee under Yu. A. Shimansky. Later chief engineer of TsKBS-1 V. A. Nikitin signed an agreement with Ansaldo for the powerplant, same as on the Raimondo Montecuccoli as planned. It also including consulting, technical assistance and help putting the Yards slipway into shape, producing new boilers, turbines and auxiliaries.
Preliminary calculations until 1933 led to adopt instead six 180-mm guns in three twin turrets. The tonnage 6500 tons and reduction of the aviation onboard to two KOR-2. Hull armor scheme was calculated, based on the 6-in (152-mm) shells at 85-115 cables 0-50° angle of up to and 130-180°.

On March 19, 1933, V. M. Orlov approved the document asking for a light cruiser with turbines based on the Montecuccoli, capable of delivering 106-120,000 shp. By April 20, 1933 Orlov approved the first draft design and on May 8, the Naval Administration worked with TsKBS-1 (TsKB-17) on the full development of the project under A. I. Maslov as project manager, V. P. Blagoveshchensky as Navy observer and it became Project 26. The drawing evolved more into the Duca d’Aosta type, larger than the Montecuccoli class, but with the same powerplant.

On October 5, 1934, during a meeting, Leningrad Plant chief engineer A. A. Florensky presented his work on the main battery turrets, and proposed instead to install three guns in each, all mated on the same cradle which, at the price of increasing the mass of each turret by 30 tons. On November 5, the proposal was approved and draft modified accordingly. Thus also brought design changes to the aft hull design, barbettes, wells, and citadel. The stern was aksi changed with the installation of anti-mine paravane, with a transom shape, a first at the time. The hull would be of a mixed sdesign with amidship longitudinal beams construction with a frame spacing of 750 mm, and at both ends a transverse construction with 500 mm spacing, rather than the 760 mm on the Italian cruisers.

There were enough compartmentation to ensure floatability in case even of three adjacent compartments flooded. Deck and side armor were integrated into the main structure, providing overall longitudinal strength. The thickness of deck armor was increased, and after all these, these hulls ended much stronger than the contemporary Montecuccoli and Aosta designs. It was necesary soon to also increased power, with the main geared turbine units modified with preliminary calculations of a final design of 7,700 tons, resulting in a top speed of 37 knots during tests based on 126,500 hp. The final project, leading to yard orders, was approved on October 29, 1934.

Construction

Voroshilov was laid down first at Marti South, Nikolayev on 15 October 1935 (Black Sea), however Kirov was the prototype for the class and was completed first. Her trials were a disappointment as her Italian-built turbines had issues to cure. She was indeed 1 knot (1.9 km/h; 1.2 mph) slower than guaranteed. However the guilty party at Ansaldo pointed out this was only guaranteed if the she displaced 7,200 tonnes or less, and her being overweight by over 500 tonnes (490 long tons; 550 short tons) was blamed on the yard.

Her turrets also were the first of their kind in USSR and despite the simplified solidary system (common mount) numerous teething problems and extra blast damage, more than anticipated, given Soviet’s poor welding techniques (it was also blamed on the plan not been followed) delayed her commission. Her firing arcs were reduced to mitigate the problem. Voroshilov however had Soviet-built turbines, and they were more powerful than anticipated so she achieved her design speed.
Components for the next cruisers of the 26bis programme were manufactured by Ordzhonikidze for Kalinin and Marti for Kaganovich, then shipped to Komsomolsk-on-Amur for assembly. The ships were launched from drydocks but towed incomplete to Vladivostok for fitting-out.

Shipyard model of the Kirov

Design

Quite Italian-looking in their design, the Kirov and Voroshilov however had another singularity, their square prow. The initial hull as planned was very light (7,000 tons empty). This proved a colossal burden, and it will be much reinforced thereafter, up to 7880 tons and even 7970 on the Voroshilov, 1/8 increase. This overweight was the result of a revision of armor. The Italians initial proposal was woefully under-protected. A ‘tin-clad’ cruiser. With this design revision, the planned speed fell to 36 knots on the Kirov and 34 on Voroshilov.

Hull & General Layout

Project 26 cruisers reached 191.3 m (627 ft 7 in) long overall for a beam of 17.66 m (57 ft 11 in), and under full load they had a draft of 6.15 m (20 ft 2 in)l albeit sources diverged. They displaced 7,890 tonnes (7,765 long tons) under standard load, 9,436 tonnes (9,287 long tons) under full load. Given their single rudder of limited size they were not very agile, bled speed and had a large turning circle.
As for their layout, similarities were Italian cruisers of the Montecuccoli-Aosta style were plenty.
Kirov and Voroshilov had both a massive tetrapod foremast, which proved to restrict view from the conning tower and fields of fire of the 100 mm DP guns as well as increased their silhouette so on the Molotov class it was rediced to a pole mast and the superstructure played around to accommodate fire control facilities previously in the foremast. The origin of this mast can be seen in earlier Italian designs however. The contemporary Zara class for example had a quadripod mast.

Propulsion

Voroshilov’s propeller at the Muiseum of Sapun mountain, Sebastopol.
The Soviets borrowed the machinery of the later Duca d’Aosta-class cruisers on paper (nominal 10,000 hp) but struggled to fit these inside the smaller hull. In the end the engine compartment was horribly cramped. This was the main reason it delayed the start of construction until 22 October 1935 for Kirov, laid down at Ordzhonikidze Yard, Leningrad and Voroshilov at Marti, Nikolayev, on 15 October 1935. Like Italian cruisers this was a simple twin-shaft-unit machinery layout. For protection, they were compartments of alternating boiler rooms and engine rooms. The machinery for Kirov was directly shipped from Italy (Initially planned for the Eugenio di Savoia).

Machinery took places in eight compartments and it was packed in two autonomous echelons. Kirov had Italian-built Beluzzo turbines made by Ansaldo, for remaining they were made under the licence. A designed power was 110000hp, however Soviet-built turbines have appeared a little bit more powerful and more efficient than Italian. On trials Kirov has shown 35.94kts at 8604t and 113500hp; Voroshilov 36.72kts at 122500hp; Maxim Gorkiy 36.1kts at 8610t and 129750hp; Molotov 36.3kts at 133000hp; Kalinin 35kts at 109500hp (or at short term 36kts at 126900hp); Kaganovich has shown average 35.65kts speed.

The Voroshilov machinery however was built on the same plans, in Kharkiv. These TB-7 geared turbines proved to be more fuel-efficient and with more raw power than the originals. Indeed, the Kirov burned .8 kg (1.8 lb) of fuel oil per hp, versus Kalinin’s 623 kg (1.37 lb) and the end result was 113,500 shaft horsepower (84,600 kW) on trials versus 122,500 shp (91,300 kW). Voroshilov reach a full knot more on trials but designed top speed was 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph).

Pressured steam came from six license-built Yarrow-Normand type water-tube boilers. Nominal capacity was 106-tonnes per hour of superheated steam, working at 25 kg/cm2 (2,452 kPa; 356 psi) of pressure. Optimal working temperature was 325 °C (617 °F). The shaft drove each a three-bladed 4.7-metre (15 ft) bronze propeller. Oil capacity ranged between both ships from 600 to 650 tonnes but it diverged at full load at 1,150 versus 1,660 tonnes, even 1,750. Endurance was 2,140 nm (Kirov) to 4,220 nautical miles and 4,860 mi at 18 knots.

Armament

180 mm/57 B-1-P Pattern 1932

When work resumed on the incomplete cruiser Krasnyi Kavkaz in 1927, it had been planned to fit her with eight 8″ (20.3 cm) guns in four twin turrets, quickly dropped due to the frail hull. Instead four 180 mm (7.1″) were were decided, essentially older 8″/50 (20.3 cm) Pattern 1905 relined down to 18 cm/60 (7.1″). They still had a very high muzzle velocity of 3,281 fps (1,000 mps) but it ate up the liner down to 10 rounds so the guns were derated. A new design was commissioned with a lower muzzle velocity, shorter barrel length as the 180 mm/57 (7.1″) B-1-P Pattern 1932 with prototypes having a built-up construction, thhen an Italian licence was acquired for loose liners from Ansaldo. Next 180 mm (7.1) barrels thus had loose liners of types, one with deep grooves, one with shallow grooves and they required different ammunition. The pattern 1931 was used on Kavkaz, but the B-1-P Pattern 1932 was used on the Kirovs.

If using the deep liner they weighted 17.1 tons (17.33 mt), for a 398 in (10.110 m) bore, 325.4 in (8.267 m) rifling lenght, 40 grooves, 3,192 in3 (52.3 dm3) for the chamber volume.
Loading was problematic however. On paper as designed they were able of 6 rounds per minute, on trials they reach 5.5 rounds per minute but in reality they were down to 2 rounds per minute practical.
The deep grooved liner enabled more shells to be fired:
The AP mod 1928: 4.3 lbs (1.95 kg) and lighter BO-08, Semi-AP mod 1928 15.4 lbs. (7 kg), HE mod 1928 15.4 lbs. (7.0 kg), three types of Shrapnel/HE mod 1928; the AA Grenade mod 1928 of 16.57 lbs. (7.52 kg)and even a Concrete piercing mod 1928: 18.89 lbs. (8.57 kg). They measured from 902 to 969mm. The best muzzle velocity was 3,018 fps (920 mps) on the HE model 1928. Working pressure was 20.6 tons/in2 (3,200 kg/cm2). The deep griiove liner allowed for a barrel life of 320 rounds versus c70 for the shallow grooved model. There were 100 rounds stored per gun, so 900 total.

Although impressive on paper, the final result was really not up to the expectations. The three electrically powered 236-247 tonnes MK-3-180 triple turrets housing three 57-calibre 180 mm B-1-P guns were mated on the same mount, therefore no individual elevation was possible. The entire cradle elevated to 48° and depressed to -5°. The end result was the blast affected their accuracy terribly. Dispersion was abysmal when firing simultaneously, whereas the rate of fire fell to two rounds per minute instead of six promised by the Italian engineer.

Kirov X & Y turrets stunning photo -scr Src wio.ru
These B-1-P guns fired a 97.55-kilogram (215.1 lb) shell at 900–920 m/s (3,000–3,000 ft/s) muzzle velocity. Range was 38,000 m (42,000 yd). Provision for each gun was 100 rounds, so 900 total and even more in the initial paper project.

100mm B-34

The secondary armament comprised six 100 mm (3.9 in)/56 B-34 anti-aircraft guns in single mounts under masks. They were placed abaft the rear turret, a well open space. Each received a provision of 325 rounds per gun. Gun weight was 2.424 tons (2.463 mt), for a barrel 228.15 in (5.795 m) long overall, bore 210.63 in (5.350 m). It was capable of 15 rounds per minute, firing a fixed 61.7 lbs. (28 kg) complete round but a wide range of projectiles, the A grenade: 34.39 lbs. (15.6 kg), AA (ZS-56): 34.39 lbs. (15.6 kg), AA (ZS-56P): 35.05 lbs. (15.9 kg), HE mod 1928 (F-56): 34.83 lbs. (15.8 kg), a diving whell: 33.07 lbs. (15.0 kg), Star Shell (SB-56): 35.27 lbs. (16.0 kg). Best muzzle velocity was with the AA grenade at 2,953 fps (900 mps) for a working pressure of 19.1 tons/in2 (3,000 kg/cm2). Max range was 24,323 yards (22,241 m), barrel life c800. Stowage unknown.

45 mm 21-K

The 45 mm anti-aircraft gun (21-K) was a Soviet design, adapted from the 45 mm anti-tank gun M1932 (19-K) itself a copy of a 3.7 cm (1.5 in) Rheinmetall standard “door-knocker” PAK 36 sold to the Soviets before Hitler came to power in 1933. The bore was just scaled up to 45 mm (1.8 in) to reuse a large stock of old 47mm ammunition. It was used by the Soviet Navy from 1934 as primary light AA gun until replaced by the fully automatic 37 mm 70-K gun in 1942-1943. However given its original it had a very slow rate of fire, and lack of a time fuze so only effective with a random direct hit. That minimal adaptation of the 53-K consisted in taking the barrel as it was and mounting it on a pedestal mount enabling AA fire. It kept the original semi-automatic breech widh automatically ejected the cartridge case, locking open ready for the next and thus hand-loaded all the way. A far cry to the allied Bofors in WW2. They also went from built-up to monobloc barrels. Issues with the breech mechanism led to have some having a semi-automatic breech. Provision was 600 rounds per gun between the BR-240 AP, and light HE F-73. The gun complete with its pedestal, weighed 507 kg (1,118 lb). Elevation reached 85° and depression -10°. Rate of fire was 25-30 rpm (practical) with and effective range of 6,000 m (20,000 ft) (ceiling) and maximum firing range of 9,200 metres (10,100 yd) at 45°.

DsHk AA Heavy MG

The tertiary armament comprised four DK 12.7-millimetre (0.50 in) machine guns, with 12,500 rounds per gun. The standard-issue 0.5-in “Dushka”. This armament varied with wartime upgrades and additions.
The Soviet DShK 1938 heavy machine gun was already frequent on pintle mounts aboard motor torpedo boats, armored river monitors, destroyers, and submarines in single, twin, and enclosed turret configurations. Adopted in 1939, it gradually replaced the obsolete 7.62 mm Maxim on Soviet warships, often grouped in quad mounts on single pintles. The Soviet Navy operated 787 of them when Operation Barbarossa started in June 1941, growing to over 4,000 naval-delivered DShKs by the end of WWII. They were Used in open single deck mounts, and sometimes motorized twin-gun open mounts (DShKM-2), armored twin turrets (DShKM-2B), and specialized low-profile or experimental disappearing mounts for submarines.
Technical Specifications:
Caliber: 12.7×108mm Soviet (roughly comparable to, but slightly longer and more powerful than the US .50 BMG).
Weight (Gun Body): 34 kg (75 lbs). Length: 1,625 mm (64 inches). Barrel Length: 1,070 mm (42.1 inches).
Feed System: 50-round non-disintegrating metal link belt.
Cyclic Rate of Fire: 600 rounds per minute (practical effective rate around 125 rpm).
Muzzle Velocity: 830 to 850 m/s (2,720–2,788 fps).
Effective Range/Ceiling: Up to 2,000 m horizontally against surface/shore targets;
Maximum anti-aircraft ceiling of 2,500 m (8,200 feet).
Armor Penetration: Capable of piercing roughly 15 mm to 20 mm of RHA armor at short distances (500 meters).

533 mm (21 in) torpedo tubes

Customary for this era, and Italian cruisers, the Kirov class had two triple 533 mm (21 inches) torpedo tubes: They were placed on deck, in the recess that existed between the two “islands” (funnels) and admiship close to the boats. They fired the standard 53-F, 53-36, or 53-38.
The Soviet 53F was a 533 mm (21-inch) cal. naval torpedo imported from the Italian Whitehead Torpedo Factory in Fiume by 1932. It was the start of the Type 53 torpedo family. It replaced the 53-27 which had short ranges and poor performance. Called 53F, it was modified, with an attempt to mate components onto domestic 53-27 frames. This gave the unreliable 53-36. The next 53-38 as however and improved copy instead of the 53F engine, fuel system, gyroscope. The 53-38 and its direct evolutions (like the 53-38U and fast 53-39) became the standard heavyweight torpedoes in wartime and beyond.
Specs 53F-36:
Weight: 3,748 lbs. (1,700 kg), Length 22.97 feet (7 m).
warhead 661.4 lbs. (300 kg).
Wet-heater, range/speed 4,000 m/43.5 knots or 8,000 m/33 knots.

Specs 53F-38:
Weight 3,560.5 lbs. (1,615 kg), 23.62 feet (7.2 m) long, warhead 661.4 lbs. (300 kg)
Wet-heater: 4,000 m/44.5 knots, 8,000 m/34.5 knots, 10,000 m/30.5 knots.

Depth charges

The Kirov class mounted two depth charge racks aft for either B-1, M-1 between 50 depth charges.

Mines

The Kirov class cruisers had mine rails on their aft deck, enough to carry between 96 and 164 mines of the KB or Model 1926 barrier mines.

Paravanes

Soviet paravanes were essentially the same as Italian paravanes of the time. They had the same hydrodynamic body, streamlined metal hull fitted with angled lateral wings and tail planes to “fly” outward and downward away from the ship via lateral lift but kept depth Control with an internal spring-loaded hydrostatic valve mechanism, connected to a rubber diaphragm in the tail automatically adjusting the water rudders to maintain a steady operating depth under tow. They also had the same moor-cutting Jaws with reinforced steel cutting teeth or serrated cable-snagging jaws mounted on the nose or towing bridle to catch, guide, and sever the anchoring cables of moored contact mines. They were streamed via heavy-gauge steel towing wires attached near the cruiser’s forefoot having increasing lateral tension relative to ship speed. They also had an explosive charge to detonate a mine at a distance.

On board aviation

Author’s illustration of the Beriev-2 KOR-I
The Kirovs carried two aircraft, but with imported German catapults. These Heinkel K-12 catapults were purchased in 1937 and could traverse 360°. They had a launch capacity of 2,750 kg (6,060 lb), the plane being thrown up to 125 km/h (78 mph). However no float plane was available then, but the KOR-1 which only entered service in September 1939. These models were slow, vulnerable to bad weather when landing, to such a point they were disembarked in the summer of 1941.

Later, the second serie Gorky and Molotov had Soviet-built ZK-1 catapults; but no plane was ever fitted to them, the all four ships stayed without plan provision. In fact the Kirov’s catapults were landed to carry more AA guns. Molotov was in the same position by 1942. The later ZK-1a catapult successfully launched a Supermarine Spitfire fighter ad the last serie Project 26bis2 was given an improved ZK-2b, eventually removed by 1947. Radars made these all obsolete.

Protection

That was hardly the selling point of the design: The weak Kirov’s scheme formed a boxed ‘raft’ around the vitals. Both flanks were closed by a waterline belt. Traverse bulkheads were 50 mm (2.0 in) as well as the decks. The 50 mm belt measured 121 m (397 feet) – about 64.5% length- by 3.4 m in height (11 ft 2 in) less than half of which was below the waterline. This was on paper, after strengthening the hull and adding hundreds of tons, it sank below it. For ASW protection, a double bottom extended longer than the belt, with armored traverse bulkheads and a fine longitudinal bulkhead which stopped flooding but this by no means prevented serious torpedo damage.
So in short: Main 50mm belt (121×3.4m) protected space between end barbettes and was closed by 50mm bulkheads at ends and by 50mm flat main deck at upper edge. Turrets and barbettes had 50mm protection on all directions. CT had 150mm sides and 100mm roof. Steering gear compartment had box-shaped 20mm protection.

In the end the arrangement only allows the ship to stay afloat, but listing by some measure.
Overall Project 26 design was faithful to the Italian ‘tin-clad’ armor of the time and the ship was vulnerable down to under 10 km (6.2 mi) to destroyer shells. At least the design of the next four ships included additional armor. Both cruisers were completed in 1938 (Kirov) and 1940 (Voroshilov), and their AA armament strengthened during the war, before 1944 ten 37 mm mounts were added, replacing the slowed 45 mm batteries.

The Kirov in 1939 – src wowsp-wows-na.wgcdn.co

Voroshilov post war (cc)

Rendition of the Kirov in world of warships

Displacement	7,890 t (7,765 long tons) standard, 9,436 t (9,287 long tons) full load
Dimensions	191.3 x 17.66 x 6.15-7.23 m (627 ft 7 i x 57 ft 11 in x 20 ft 2 in)
Propulsion	2 Parsons turbines, 6 Yarrow-Normand boilers, 113,000 hp.
Speed	36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph)
Range	3,750 nmi (6,940 km; 4,320 mi) at 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph), 6,000 nm/10 knots.
Armament	3×3 180 mm (3×3), 4×1 100 mm DP, 6×1 45 mm AA, 4x 12,7 mm, 2×3 533 mm TTs, 3 airplanes.
Protection	Deck, belt, barbettes 50 mm (2 in), turrets 76 mm (3 in), conning tower 152 mm (6 in)
Crew	734

Liveries

The upper photos shows Molotov and Kalinin in variants of the Baltic and Black Sea camouflages in 1942-43. The base of a light grey. Paints used were whatever was available, between dark green, dark blue and dark grey. They used complex geometric, disruptive, and deceptive coastal schemes. Each fleet adapted the patterns to local conditions. There also an Arctic pattern using white shapes along the waterline. But also pale grays, dark winter shades, aluminum-based silver paint, as well as distinct dark red lead decks. Postwar they adopted the typical livery of their age, ocean-gray or light-gray vertical hull and superstructure, paired with distinctive red lead anti-corrosive primer on horizontal steel decks and black or dark red below the waterline (as Molotov seen above).

An Italian Design on the black sea

The first cruisers to bear the name were not only the first Soviet ‘heavy’ cruisers, but also the first designed on a fresh base, contrary to the previous Kavkaz and Chervona Ukrainia completed in the interwar but based on pre-war Russian designs of the Svetlana class. The Soviet Navy did not existed in 1922 and never was admitted to the Washington naval conference. So Soviet Russia was never tied to the treaty’s restrictive clauses. But despite of this, the Navy’s requirements in terms of cruisers did not required more than what was already defined as a “treaty cruiser”. So they even never met a 10,000 ton displacement fully loaded, let alone standard. In fact they were closer to a light cruiser in this area.

The Kirov class were modernized:
In mid-1941 Voroshilov saw the removal and replacement of her 45mm/43 by six 37mm/63 70K. In Sept. the same year this was done also on Kirov, but she kept all but three 45mm/43 AA gun.
By June 1942, Kirov lost her three last 45mm/43, the catapult and seaplanes were removed. Instead she received two extra 100mm/54 B-34 guns, six more 37mm/63 70K AA guns, two quad 12.7mm/62 HMG mounts and two single Browning 12.7mm/79 M1920A1 supplied by the allies. In August 1942, Voroshilov also saw the removal of her catapult and seaplanes but was only rearmed with two extra 37mm/63 70K.

By December however, she received another 37mm/63 70K and two quad 12.7mm/62. By February 1943 two more 37mm/63 70K were added, as well as in April, three more, and by December, she recuperated six 45mm/66 21KM AA guns, and her sister in 1944, Kirov was re-equipped with British electronics for her service on the northern convoy route: A type 282, type 284, 2x type 285, and type 291 radars were installed.
In 1944 Voroshilov followed the same modifications, receiving the type 281, 2x type 282, type 284, 2x type 285, type 291 radars and in early 1945, her 45mm/66 were retired.
By late 1954, close to decommission, Kirov had her eight 100mm/56 B-34 removed as well as all her eleven 37mm/73, two quad 12.7mm/62 DhSk, single ones, torpedo tubes, depht charges, mines fittings, and British radars for eight brand new 100mm/56 B-34-USM, nine 37mm/70 V-11, and the Rif, Giuys, Zalp, Yakor radars.

The Kirov (first group) in action

These two ships served during the war and survived. The Kirov was sent to Finland in 1939, carrying out coastal bombing, before joining Tallinn for his defense after the German invasion of June 1941, then returned to the defense of Leningrad, bombed by the Luftwaffe and badly damaged, then again beginning 1942, he was repaired and resumed service at the end of 1943, supporting the Leningrad winter counter-offensive in 1944. He remained in service until 1976-77 as a training ship. Voroshilov participated in various coastal bombing missions after June 1941, was badly damaged in October by bombers, was sent to Poti for repairs, and left in February 1942 to support the winter counter-offensive. she struck a mine in November 1942 and was sent for repairs to Batum, but in early 1945 she was still there. It still served until the 60s.

Kirov (Киров) was the first of two Project 26 cruisers, she was ordered from Ordzhonikidze Yard, Leningrad, laid down on 22 October 1935, launched on 30 November 1936 and commissioned on 26 September 1938. She was completed on 26 September 1938. She joined the Baltic Fleet in the autumn of 1938, but was still being worked on into early 1939 before sailing to Riga on 22 October to backup the occupation of Latvia, then she proceeded to Liepāja a day later. During the Winter War, on 30 November 1939, escorted by the destroyers Smetlivyi and Stremitel’nyi, she proceeded to bombard Finnish coast defense guns at Russarö. This position was 5 km (3.1 mi) south of Hanko. She only fired 35 rounds but was also damaged by near misses and had to return to Liepāja for repairs, remained there for the remainder of the Winter War before prceeding to Kronstadt and being based here from October 1940 to 21 May 1941 seen littleactivity.

She was underway off Riga when USSR was invaded on June 1941, and was found trapped in the Gulf of Riga by the advance. She supported minelaying sorties by destroyers in the western Irben Strait on 24–25 and 26–27 June but eventually had to off-load both fuel and ammunition to reduce draft and proceeded through the shallow Moon Sound Channel, between Muhu and the mainland, managing to reach Tallinn by late June. There, she proceeded to bring gunfire support for the defense of Tallinn. She became the flagship for the evacuation fleet to Leningrad by late August 1941. But afterwards she was bacically blockaded in Leningrad and Kronstadt. The Germans indeed mines all the accesses.

Thus, was still used as a semi-stationary gun platform for the defenders during the siege. The Luftwaffe made several raids however and heavy axis guns also were posted close enough to bombard the harbour. Thus, she was damaged, notably on 4–5 April 1942 when hit by three bombs and one 15-cm (5.9 in) shell. She lost all six 100 mm AA guns, her aft funnel was gutted, her mainmast fell and she lost 86 sailors, 46 being wounded. Repairs took two months. Her catapult was removed and a lighter pole mainmast was fitted. Her anti-aircraft armament was modernized and increased and she continued providing local defence. Eventually the siege of Leningrad, the longest in modern times, ended by early 1944. Kirov took no further part in the war except for more local gunfire support when she sortied to provide her services in the Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive in mid–1944.

Kirov painted white during the Leningrad siege

The end of the war did not meant the end of combat damage: Kirov indeed ran into a German magnetic mine while leaving Kronstadt on 17 October 1945. This sent her under repair until 20 December 1946. She was refitted from November 1949 to April 1953 for her cold war service: Her machinery was completely overhauled. She had new radars, fire control systems, anti-aircraft guns: Her secondary armament was upgraded with electrically powered, fully automated 100 mm B-34USM mountings. Her fire-control system was replaced with a Zenit-26 system with SPN-500 stabilized directors. All the light AA guns were replaced with nine twin gun water-cooled 37 mm V-11 mounts. New systems were the Rif surface search, Gyuys air search, Zalp surface gunnery and Yakor’ anti-aircraft gunnery radars. Her ASW grenades were removed as her torpedo launchers and aircraft equipment or boat cranes. This expensive refit (still 50% of a brand new Sverdlov class) enabled her to serve for another two decades…

Even, her paint livery changed as well with her decks in the cold war reddish orange and hull and vertical surfaced in dark grey. She took part in fleet maneuvers in the North Sea by January 1956. She then became a training cruiser, as between the Chapayev and Sverdlov, the Sovietsky Flot did not lacked conventional cruisers. As such, she visited Poland and East Germany on August 1961. She was eventually sold for scrap on 22 February 1974 after 18 years. When Kirov was decommissioned, her two gun turrets were installed in Saint Petersburg as a monument.

Voroshilov (Ворошилов) was ordered from Marti South, Nikolayev and laid down on 15 October 1935. She was launched on 28 June 1937 and commissioned on 20 June 1940 for the black sea fleet. Her completion was delayed as she had to wait for her Soviet-built machinery to be delivered. On 26 June 1941, Voroshilov escorted the Soviet destroyers bombarding Constanta after the start of the invaion in June-July 1941. She was damaged by a mine exploded by the destroyer Soobrazitelny’s paravanes quite close. She shelled Axis troops near Odessa as well on 19 September, in all raining 148 shells. Next she was transferred to Novorossiysk and on 2 November. There, she was badly damaged by an air raid of by Junkers Ju 88 from Kampfgeschwader 51. She was hit twice. A fite started in #3 magazine, extinguished by cock flooding after a second hit came close. She was towed to Poti for repairs until February 1942. Back in commission she shelled Axis positions near Feodosiya, on 19 March, then and 3 April 1942. Again she was attacked by Ju-88s bombers and took bomb shrapnel damage (near hits) on 10 April. This time she was repaired at Batumi for a short while.

On 8 and 11 May 1942 she brought fire support for the ground conter-offensives at Kerch and in the Taman Peninsula. On 27 May she had a turbine breaking down while she transported the 9th Naval Infantry Brigade from Batumi to Sevastopol. Repairs lasted until 24 July. On 1 December 1942 while shelling Snake Island (made famous by the 2022 war but then occupied by the Romanians) with the destroyer Soobrazitelny. In all she rained some forty-six 180 mm and fifty-seven 100 mm shells. She destroyed the radio station, barracks, lighthouse but while underway, she hit Romanian mines. she returned to Poti under her own power to be repaired. Then she returned for naval gunfire support after the landings behind German lines at Malaya Zemlya, late January 1943. On 17 February she was transferred from Poti to Batumi but eventually Stalin decided after the loss of three destroyers to withdraw her from active operations after the Taman Bridgehead air attack losses of 6 October. She was transferred to Novorossiysk on 18 August 1944, then as the Soviet Army freed Crimea she was back to Sevastopol on 5 November and awarded the Order of the Red Banner on 8 July 1945 for her service.

However being badly damaged several times and lacking proper maintenance when inspected in 1946 her general start generated an unsatisfactory report. Still she was granted routine servicing. She saw no further service until she started her postwar modernization in April 1954. However it was soon stopped as a commission reevaluated her state in 1955. Maxim Gorky was selected instead. However she was chosen for conversion to test new missiles under Project 33. Conversion started on 17 February 1956. Her armament was removed. She had a brand new superstructure and masts. Recommissioned as OS-24 on 31 December 1961 she was further modernized under Project 33M, from 11 October 1963 to 1 December 1965. The given her age she had a last conversion, this time as a floating barracks on 6 October 1972, redesignated as PKZ-19. She was however soon sold for scrap, on 2 March 1973. Her 14-ton propeller and 2.5-ton stop anchors were sent to “Museum of Heroic Defense and Liberation of Sevastopol” on Sapun Mountain.

Post stamp showing the Kirov in 1953 (cc)

The Kirov in the 1970s (unknown src – imgurl)

Second group: Maxim Gorkiy class (1938) – Project 26bis

This second class was closely modelled after the previous Kirov. Their superstructure diverged however with a simple conning tower on top of which was mounted the bridge and fire director, instead of a quadripod mast. They were slightly larger at 17.70 m wide instead of 17.66 m (58 feets), weighting 100 tons more at 9792 tons fully loaded versus 9950 (on Voroshilov).

The power-plant was also revised and produced 129,500 hp but with an unchanged top speed of 35 knots.
Their 45 mm AA artillery received two additional mounts. The Gorkiy was completed in Ordonikidze Yard in November 1940 and the Molotov in June 1941. Both were in service during the invasion. They were followed by Kaganovich (June 1944) and Kalinin (1943), started both in 1939 at Komsomolsk. In 1944 all four had received additional 37 mm guns for 10 in all, and four ASW mortars.
Note: The Gorky class will be the object of a dedicated post in the future.

Protection-wise, the belt, traverse bulkheads, barbettes and turret (face) had their armor thickened to 70 mm (2.8 in). The steering gear was armored box was increased to 30 mm (1.2 in). Their armor scheme was singular, with a joint between the armour deck and the belt. The top and bottom edges of this belt were tapered up on 200 mm (7.9 in) 45 mm thick. The deck edge was also tapered down to 25 mm. This was probably a weight-saving measure applied during construction.

Outwardly ships differed by the form of fore superstructure. On project 26 it was formed round a quarter-pod foremast with director arranged above which has been subject to vibration and covered the view from a bridge. Cruisers of project 26-bis received new tower-form superstructure reminding the Italian cruiser Montecuccoli, and the massive foremast has been changed by light tripod one. Protection of cruisers of project 26 included 50mm belt with 121m length and 3.4m height, covered by 50mm transverse bulkheads.

50mm main deck was connected with its upper edge. Turrets and barbettes from all directions were protected by 50mm plates, the conning tower had 150mm sides and 100mm roof. Steering gear compartment was covered by 20mm armour. In project 26-bis the protection scheme remained the same, but a thickness of a belt, transverse bulkheads, faces and roofs of turrets, barbettes have increased to 70mm, steering gear compartment to 30mm. By estimations, it ensured immunity zone against 152mm shells on distances from 97 to 122cables.

The main artillery became the major feature of cruisers. Turrets were designed by means of Italians, placing of all guns in the common gun slide became corollary of that. In this connection, it is necessary to mark, that in the USSR cruisers of projects 26 and a 26-bis were listed as light when according to the international norms they should be referred to the heavy. Beacuse of shortage of new 100m AA guns Kalinin and Kaganovich did not receive planned AA guns, therefore they should receive 85 mm/52 guns instead, but however because of unavailability of these mounts on Far East, Kalinin at the commission was armed with 76mm/55 34K guns.

The Project 26bis ships (Gorkiy class) carried the same turrets with with improved 21-K mounts. In addition to their standard AA they were given ten additional fully automatic 37 mm (1.5 in) 70-K AA guns. 1000 rounds were provided for each one. During wartime, their 45 mm guns were removed and replaced by 37 mm guns. Also Lend-Lease quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun on MK III mounts were fitted on Baltic and Black Sea ships, either one or two.

Maxim Gorkiy circa 1942 (cc)

Kaganovitch stern (cc)

Dimensions	191 x 17.66 x 7.23 m ( feets)
Displacement	7900 tons, 8800 tons Fully Loaded
Crew	734
Propulsion	2 Parsons turbines, 6 Yarrow-Normand boilers, 113,000 hp.
Speed	36 knots (50 km/h)
Range	6000 nm @ 10 knots.
Armament	9 x 180 mm (3×3), 6 x 100 mm, 6 x 45 mm AA, 4 x 12,7 mm, 6 x 533 mm TTs (2×3), 3 airplanes.
Protection	Deck, belt, barbettes 50 mm (2 in), turrets 76 mm (3 in), conning tower 152 mm (6 in)

The Gorkiy class in action (More on a dedicated article)

Voroshilov in 1941
Gorkiy hit a mine in June 1941 and lost her bow. But she survived and was repaired temporarily in Leningrad, stayed in drydock but defending herself meanwhile against German air attacks. However in April German rail artillery and field artillery added their weight to the Luftwaffe, and the cruiser underwent a real hell in April. But she was repaired and again operational, supporting the great Leningrad counter-offensive of 1944. She survived the war, withdrawn from active service in 1958.

The Maxim Gorkiy repaired in Kronstadt (cc)
Molotov was defending the Black Sea. Present in Sevastopol and providing her defense, she was attacked on 3 August 1942 by the Italian MAS 568, losing her bow (too !). Repaired with the bow from the suspended Frunze, she resumed service at the end of 1944. She would survive the war and be disarmed in 1972.

Third group – Kalinin class (1941)

The cruiser Kalinin, camouflaged in 1945 (navsrource).
Kalinin and Kaganovich were launched at Komsomolsk on the Amur, but were towed to Vladivostok for completion because of their draft. They were put into service in the Pacific fleet, but remained inactive during the short hostilities against Japan in July-August 1945. They were withdrawn from service in the 1960s. Project 26bis2 used eight single 52-caliber 85 mm (3.3 in) 90-K guns, supplied with 300 rounds per gun.

Kaganovitch 1958

Heritage: Chapayev class (1949)

The next class, the Chapayev, was started in 1938-39. This was a mobilization class with 7 ships ordered for the first batch, laid down in 1938-40. Only the first five were launched in 1940-41. For lack of manpower and resources diverted to more urgent priorities, construction was suspended. They were therefore completed after the conflict in 1949-50. Overall, they presented themselves as a new interpretation of the Kirov and Gorkiy, but with a powerful machinery to carry their 15,000 tons at full load and more generous dimensions (201 x 19,70 meters). Just like the Cleveland or London treaty type cruisers, they carried a 12 gun battery of 6-in (152 mm) quick-firing artillery, and a powerful AA to match. They served until the end of the 1960s alongside the following Sverdlov class, the last Soviet conventional cruisers, in service until the 1990s for some.

It should be noted that USSR also had the heavy cruiser Tallin in service by 1943, a former German heavy cruiser of the Hipper class, Lützow. She was sold under provisions of the Germano-Soviet pact in 1939 and renamed Petropavlovsk. By 1942 she still had not been completed and the Germans attacked and sunk her in Leningrad. She was later refloated and towed to safety, repaired, completed, renamed Tallin in late 1943 and was back in action in the offensive against Leningrad in 1944, then served as training ship.

Sources/read More

Books

Budzbon, Przemysław (1980). “Soviet Union”. In Chesneau, Roger (ed.). Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships 1922–1946.
Rohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two. NIP
Whitley, M. J. (1995). Cruisers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. London: Cassell.
Wright, Christopher C. (2008). “Cruisers of the Soviet Navy, Part II: Project 26 and Project 26bis–the Kirov Class”. Warship International. XLV (4)
Wright, Christopher C. (2010). “Cruisers of the Soviet Navy, Part III: The Kirov Class Ships’ Characteristics, Section I”. Warship International. XLVII (2)
Yakubov, Vladimir & Worth, Richard (2009). Jordan, John (ed.). The Soviet Light Cruisers of the Kirov Class. Warship 2009.
Budzbon, Przemysław; Radziemski, Jan & Twardowski, Marek (2022). Warships of the Soviet Fleets 1939–1945. Vol. I. NIP

Links

ww2db.com/
web.archive.org/ kirov class
navsource.narod.ru/
web.archive.org flot.sevastopol.info/
web.archive.org/ flot.sevastopol.info/
navsource.narod.ru
wio.ru/fleet/ww2cruiser.htm
world-war.co.uk/ kirov.php3
navweaps.com/ 180mm m1932
navweaps.com/ soviet torpedoes 53F family
3d view (WT)
laststandonzombieisland.com more about the Kalinin
en.wikipedia.org/ Kirov-class_cruiser
navweaps.com/ 71-57_m1932.php

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